根據上下文判斷某些詞匯和短語的意義

　　在閱讀理解測試中必然要考查對詞或詞組的意思的理解。這也是測試考生閱讀能力的一種方法。在完整的語篇中，單詞和詞組的意義總是受特定的情景、上下文所限制的，因此可以根據上下文，并利用所掌握的句法、構詞法和詞匯等知識確定它們的意義。掌握這一基本技能不僅能幫助讀者從詞或詞組的多種義項中選擇符合上下文的解釋，而且往往還能推測某些生詞的大致意思。常見的這類題型有：

　　1. The word ... in line ... refers to ______.

　　2. The expression ... is closest in meaning to

　　3. In line.., the word ... most probably means ________

　　4. In line.., the word ... could best be replaced by _________

　　5. By ... the author means _________

　　6. The word ..., as used by the author, most nearly means ________

　　7. In this passage, the word ... means

　　8. ... in the context of the passage refers to _________

　　9. ..., as used in the passage, can best be defined as _________

　　例1

　　Perhaps the most merciless robber of sleep, researchers say, is the complexity of the day. Whenever pressures from work, family, friends and community mount, many people consider sleep the least expensive item on his program. In our society, youre considered dynamic if you say you only need 5.5 hours sleep. If youve got to get 8.5 hours, people think you lack drive and ambition.

　　To determine the consequences of sleep deficit, researchers have put subjects through a set of psychological and performance tests requiring them, for instance, to add columns of numbers or recall a passage read to them only minutes earlier. Weve found that if youre in sleep deficit, performance suffers, says Dr. David. Short-term memory is weakened, as are abilities to make decisions and to concentrate.

　　1. The word subjects in line 6 refers to ________.

　　A. the performance tests used in the study of sleep deficit

　　B. special branches of knowledge that are being studied

　　C. people whose behavior or reactions are being studied

　　D. the psychological consequences of sleep deficit

　　本題考了一個熟悉的詞subject。它是一個多義詞，可以表示題目、科目等。但這些義項在這里都不合適。要確定它的意思，最關鍵的是要準確弄清它所在句子前后部分的意思和關系。這句話前一部分說，要確定睡眠不足引起的后果，研究人員讓subjects通過一系列的心理和能力的測驗，要求them將幾欄數字加起來或回憶幾分鐘前所聽到過的文章。所以，這里subjects是人，是正在被研究的對象。選項C是正確答案。

　　例2

　　Labors concern over automation arises from uncertainty about the effects on employment, and fears of major changes in jobs. In the main, labor has taken the view that resistance to technical change is unfruitful. Eventually, the result of automation may well be an increase in employment, since it is expected that vast industries will grow up around manufacturing, maintaining, and repairing automation equipment. The interest of labor lies in bringing about the transition with a minimum of inconvenience and distress to the workers involved. Also, union spokesmen emphasize that the benefit of the increased production and lower costs made possible by automation should be shared by workers in the form of higher wages, more leisure, and improved living standards.

　　To protect the interests of their members in the era of automation, unions have adopted a number of new policies. One of these is the promotion of supplementary unemployment benefit plans. It is emphasized that since the employer involved in such a plan has a direct financial interest in preventing unemployment, he will have a strong drive for planning new installations so as to cause the least possible problems in jobs and job assignments. Some unions are working for dismissal pay agreements, requiring that permanently dismissed workers be paid a sum of money based on length of service. Another approach is the idea of the improvement factor, which calls for wage increases based on increases in productivity. It is possible, however, that labor will rely mainly on reduction in working hours in order to gain a full share in the fruits of automation.

　　1. The idea of the improvement factor implies roughly______.

　　A. wages should be paid on the basis of length of service

　　B. the benefit of the increased production and lower costs should be shared by workers

　　C. supplementary unemployment benefit plans should be promoted

　　D. the transition to automation should be brought about with the minimum of inconvenience and distress to workers

　　本題要求學生根據上下文理解improvement factor的含義。在文章的第二段第七行，提出增值因素是要求隨著生產率的提高，工資也要相應地提高;而生產率的提高就是增加生產降低成本。因而選項B是正確答案。選項A，把解雇金協議，即根據服務期長短給長期解雇者一筆錢，與增值因素的內容混淆起來，說明有時文章和題目并不難，但粗心大意會使你答錯題。選項C是講另一種勞工利益保護措施的，即失業者補助金計劃;而選項D是講工人們對自動化帶來的種種影響所關切的問題 。

　　例3

　　Before the nineteenth century, scientists with an interest in the sea were few and far between. Certainly Newton considered some theoretical aspects of it in his writings, but he was reluctant to go to sea to further his work.

　　For most people the sea was remote, and with the exception of early intercontinental travelers or others who earned a living from the sea, there was little reason to ask many questions about it, let alone to ask what lay beneath the surface. The first time that the question What is at the bottom of the oceans? had to be answered with any commercial consequence was when the laying of a telegraph cable from Europe to America was proposed. The engineers had to know the depth profile of the route to estimate the length of cable that had to be manufactured.

　　It was to Maury of the US Navy that the Atlantic Telegraph Company turned, in 1853, for information on this matter. In the 1840s, Maury had been responsible for encouraging voyages during which soundings were taken to investigate the depths of the North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Later, some of his findings aroused much popular interest in his book The Physical Geography of the Sea.

　　The cable was laid, but not until 1866 was the connection made permanent and reliable. At the early attempts, the cable failed and when it was taken out for repairs it was found to be covered in living growths, a fact which defied contemporary scientific opinion that there was no life in the deeper parts of the sea.

　　1.Defied in the last sentence probably means ________.

　　A. doubted B. 9ave proof to

　　C. challenged D. agreed to

　　本題考查的是根據上下文進行詞義猜測的能力。defied是defy的過去式，根據最后一句可以推測它的詞義，但必須完全讀懂defied前后部分的意思：前一部分是說從海底撈出的電纜上覆蓋著各種各樣的生物，后一部分是當時的科學觀點認為海底深處是沒有生命的。由此可見，前一部分的事實是批駁后一部分的觀點。所以，答案是選項C，challenged。這個詞的原意是向挑戰，因而有對持異議、反對的意思，其賓語常常是針對某種意見、觀點或權威。

　　例4

　　We find that bright children are rarely held back by mixed-ability teaching.On the contrary， both their knowledge and experience are enriched.We feel that there are many disadvantages in streaming pupils.It does not take into account the fact that children develop at different rates.It can have a bad effect on both the bright and the notSO-bright child.After all，it Can be quite discouraging to be at the bottom of the top grade!

　　1.By held backthe author means________.

　　A. made to remain in the same class

　　B. forced to study in the lower class

　　C. drawn to their studies

　　D. prevented from advancing

　　本題考的是對詞組holdback的理解。根據上下文，它的意思是阻擋，阻礙，選項D是答案。當然holdback還可以表示猶豫，如：I have noticed that you do not holdback in our discussion.; 控制，如：The dam was not strong enough to hold back the flood waters.;保留、不公布，如： I think hes holding something back;he knows more than he admits.。對照上下文，選項A、B、C都不能表達hold back的意義。

　　例5

　　In the workplace，men have long had welldefined precedents and role models for achieving Success.It has been otherwise for women.A good many women in the business world are uncertain about the appropriate mixture of masculine and feminine attributes they should convey by their professional clothing.The variety of clothing alternatives to women has also been greater than that available for men.Male administrators tend to judge women more favorably for managerial positions when the women display less feminine groomingshorter hair.moderate use of makeup，and plain tailored clothing.As one male administrator confessed，An attractive woman is definitely going to get a longer interview，but she wont get a job.

　　1.The word precedents in line l probably refers to __________.

　　A. early acts for men to follow as examples

　　B. particular places for men to occupy especially because of their importance

　　C. things that men should agree upon

　　D. mens belief that everything in the world has already been decided

　　本題要求考生推測precedents的意思。這個題目比較難，需要構詞法的知識并通過上下文的幫助，才能答對。從第一、二句可以看出，precedents在意義上與role models是并列的。而且，它的前綴pre- 有先，前的意思，實際上它是precede加后綴-ent構成的，意思是先例，慣例。所以只有選項A才是正確答案。

　　根據上下文判斷某些詞匯和短語的意義

　　在閱讀理解測試中必然要考查對詞或詞組的意思的理解。這也是測試考生閱讀能力的一種方法。在完整的語篇中，單詞和詞組的意義總是受特定的情景、上下文所限制的，因此可以根據上下文，并利用所掌握的句法、構詞法和詞匯等知識確定它們的意義。掌握這一基本技能不僅能幫助讀者從詞或詞組的多種義項中選擇符合上下文的解釋，而且往往還能推測某些生詞的大致意思。常見的這類題型有：

　　1. The word ... in line ... refers to ______.

　　2. The expression ... is closest in meaning to

　　3. In line.., the word ... most probably means ________

　　4. In line.., the word ... could best be replaced by _________

　　5. By ... the author means _________

　　6. The word ..., as used by the author, most nearly means ________

　　7. In this passage, the word ... means

　　8. ... in the context of the passage refers to _________

　　9. ..., as used in the passage, can best be defined as _________

　　例1

　　Perhaps the most merciless robber of sleep, researchers say, is the complexity of the day. Whenever pressures from work, family, friends and community mount, many people consider sleep the least expensive item on his program. In our society, youre considered dynamic if you say you only need 5.5 hours sleep. If youve got to get 8.5 hours, people think you lack drive and ambition.

　　To determine the consequences of sleep deficit, researchers have put subjects through a set of psychological and performance tests requiring them, for instance, to add columns of numbers or recall a passage read to them only minutes earlier. Weve found that if youre in sleep deficit, performance suffers, says Dr. David. Short-term memory is weakened, as are abilities to make decisions and to concentrate.

　　1. The word subjects in line 6 refers to ________.

　　A. the performance tests used in the study of sleep deficit

　　B. special branches of knowledge that are being studied

　　C. people whose behavior or reactions are being studied

　　D. the psychological consequences of sleep deficit

　　本題考了一個熟悉的詞subject。它是一個多義詞，可以表示題目、科目等。但這些義項在這里都不合適。要確定它的意思，最關鍵的是要準確弄清它所在句子前后部分的意思和關系。這句話前一部分說，要確定睡眠不足引起的后果，研究人員讓subjects通過一系列的心理和能力的測驗，要求them將幾欄數字加起來或回憶幾分鐘前所聽到過的文章。所以，這里subjects是人，是正在被研究的對象。選項C是正確答案。

　　例2

　　Labors concern over automation arises from uncertainty about the effects on employment, and fears of major changes in jobs. In the main, labor has taken the view that resistance to technical change is unfruitful. Eventually, the result of automation may well be an increase in employment, since it is expected that vast industries will grow up around manufacturing, maintaining, and repairing automation equipment. The interest of labor lies in bringing about the transition with a minimum of inconvenience and distress to the workers involved. Also, union spokesmen emphasize that the benefit of the increased production and lower costs made possible by automation should be shared by workers in the form of higher wages, more leisure, and improved living standards.

　　To protect the interests of their members in the era of automation, unions have adopted a number of new policies. One of these is the promotion of supplementary unemployment benefit plans. It is emphasized that since the employer involved in such a plan has a direct financial interest in preventing unemployment, he will have a strong drive for planning new installations so as to cause the least possible problems in jobs and job assignments. Some unions are working for dismissal pay agreements, requiring that permanently dismissed workers be paid a sum of money based on length of service. Another approach is the idea of the improvement factor, which calls for wage increases based on increases in productivity. It is possible, however, that labor will rely mainly on reduction in working hours in order to gain a full share in the fruits of automation.

　　1. The idea of the improvement factor implies roughly______.

　　A. wages should be paid on the basis of length of service

　　B. the benefit of the increased production and lower costs should be shared by workers

　　C. supplementary unemployment benefit plans should be promoted

　　D. the transition to automation should be brought about with the minimum of inconvenience and distress to workers

　　本題要求學生根據上下文理解improvement factor的含義。在文章的第二段第七行，提出增值因素是要求隨著生產率的提高，工資也要相應地提高;而生產率的提高就是增加生產降低成本。因而選項B是正確答案。選項A，把解雇金協議，即根據服務期長短給長期解雇者一筆錢，與增值因素的內容混淆起來，說明有時文章和題目并不難，但粗心大意會使你答錯題。選項C是講另一種勞工利益保護措施的，即失業者補助金計劃;而選項D是講工人們對自動化帶來的種種影響所關切的問題 。

　　例3

　　Before the nineteenth century, scientists with an interest in the sea were few and far between. Certainly Newton considered some theoretical aspects of it in his writings, but he was reluctant to go to sea to further his work.

　　For most people the sea was remote, and with the exception of early intercontinental travelers or others who earned a living from the sea, there was little reason to ask many questions about it, let alone to ask what lay beneath the surface. The first time that the question What is at the bottom of the oceans? had to be answered with any commercial consequence was when the laying of a telegraph cable from Europe to America was proposed. The engineers had to know the depth profile of the route to estimate the length of cable that had to be manufactured.

　　It was to Maury of the US Navy that the Atlantic Telegraph Company turned, in 1853, for information on this matter. In the 1840s, Maury had been responsible for encouraging voyages during which soundings were taken to investigate the depths of the North Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. Later, some of his findings aroused much popular interest in his book The Physical Geography of the Sea.

　　The cable was laid, but not until 1866 was the connection made permanent and reliable. At the early attempts, the cable failed and when it was taken out for repairs it was found to be covered in living growths, a fact which defied contemporary scientific opinion that there was no life in the deeper parts of the sea.

　　1.Defied in the last sentence probably means ________.

　　A. doubted B. 9ave proof to

　　C. challenged D. agreed to

　　本題考查的是根據上下文進行詞義猜測的能力。defied是defy的過去式，根據最后一句可以推測它的詞義，但必須完全讀懂defied前后部分的意思：前一部分是說從海底撈出的電纜上覆蓋著各種各樣的生物，后一部分是當時的科學觀點認為海底深處是沒有生命的。由此可見，前一部分的事實是批駁后一部分的觀點。所以，答案是選項C，challenged。這個詞的原意是向挑戰，因而有對持異議、反對的意思，其賓語常常是針對某種意見、觀點或權威。

　　例4

　　We find that bright children are rarely held back by mixed-ability teaching.On the contrary， both their knowledge and experience are enriched.We feel that there are many disadvantages in streaming pupils.It does not take into account the fact that children develop at different rates.It can have a bad effect on both the bright and the notSO-bright child.After all，it Can be quite discouraging to be at the bottom of the top grade!

　　1.By held backthe author means________.

　　A. made to remain in the same class

　　B. forced to study in the lower class

　　C. drawn to their studies

　　D. prevented from advancing

　　本題考的是對詞組holdback的理解。根據上下文，它的意思是阻擋，阻礙，選項D是答案。當然holdback還可以表示猶豫，如：I have noticed that you do not holdback in our discussion.; 控制，如：The dam was not strong enough to hold back the flood waters.;保留、不公布，如： I think hes holding something back;he knows more than he admits.。對照上下文，選項A、B、C都不能表達hold back的意義。

　　例5

　　In the workplace，men have long had welldefined precedents and role models for achieving Success.It has been otherwise for women.A good many women in the business world are uncertain about the appropriate mixture of masculine and feminine attributes they should convey by their professional clothing.The variety of clothing alternatives to women has also been greater than that available for men.Male administrators tend to judge women more favorably for managerial positions when the women display less feminine groomingshorter hair.moderate use of makeup，and plain tailored clothing.As one male administrator confessed，An attractive woman is definitely going to get a longer interview，but she wont get a job.

　　1.The word precedents in line l probably refers to __________.

　　A. early acts for men to follow as examples

　　B. particular places for men to occupy especially because of their importance

　　C. things that men should agree upon

　　D. mens belief that everything in the world has already been decided

　　本題要求考生推測precedents的意思。這個題目比較難，需要構詞法的知識并通過上下文的幫助，才能答對。從第一、二句可以看出，precedents在意義上與role models是并列的。而且，它的前綴pre- 有先，前的意思，實際上它是precede加后綴-ent構成的，意思是先例，慣例。所以只有選項A才是正確答案。